Raptor Information

Species Spotlight: American Kestrel

Scientific Name: Falco spaverious

Appearance: smallest falcon in North America, male and female have very different plumage. Male has slate-blue wings, slate-blue cap on head, black vertical stripes ("mustaches") under eyes over white cheeks, the back is rust with black bars, tail is rusty red with black terminal band and a single white with black barred feather on each side of the tail, breast color varies from solid rust color to white with streaks of brown. Female is rust colored with black bars on wings, tail and back, head is similar to male pattern but paler, breast cream with white streaks.

Size: Weight ranges from 3.5 - 5.3 ounces, females are larger than the males. Body length ranges from 8 - 11 inches, wingspan is 20 - 24 inches.

Range: widespread and common throughout North America south of the arctic tree line in most habitats. They prefer more open country although they will hunt open woodlands as well. Northern populations are migratory with some birds moving down through Central America, although the species remains abundant in the southern US during winter.

Food Preferences: small birds, insects, small lizards & snakes, mice, moles shrews, other small mammals.

Hunting Technique: Usually seen hovering or sitting on exposed perches like utility wires, fence posts, bare tree limbs, females tend to hunt in more open areas than the males, especially in winter.

Habitat: Open or partly open habitats with scattered trees, also cultivated and urban areas, also in the desert.

Nesting: nest in tree cavities, although they will readily accept nest boxes. They will also readily use any holes in cliff faces, cactus, crevices in buildings that are available.

Habits: active flight is light and buoyant, altho when in pursuit of a bird they will chase in a direct rapid flight. Glides on flat wings and is the only falcon in the US that will hover during hunting.

Status: Common throughout its' range.

NOTES: This species used to be commonly called a "sparrow hawk". The descriptive term goes back to the middle ages; "sparrow" was the common name for any small bird, and the verb "to hawk" means to fly after prey. Thus, a sparrow hawk flew after small birds, which is indeed their favorite food. They are a favorite bird of falconers for their small size and agility, not to mention personality!

Apex came to Three Rivers Avian Center in June of 2000 when he was about 8 weeks old. He was taken illegally from his nest as a hatchling by someone who wanted to keep him as a pet. When the person was confronted for illegally possessing a bird of prey by a local conservation officer, the person turned him over to Oglebay's Good Zoo. The damage was done however: as Apex's eyes focused, they focused on humans so he believes that he is a human, not a kestrel. Sadly, this misbelief will last him throughout his life, so he cannot be released back into the wild.

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Barred

Owl

Scientific Name: Strix varia

Appearance: front is mostly white with dark spotty streaks and smaller dark bars on the front, back is a dark brown with white spots, wings and tail have white bars.

Size: often weighs about a pound and a half, have a wing span of 38 - 44 inches and if you stretched the bird out and measured from the tip of it's beak to the tip of it's tail, the average Barred Owl is just over 24 inches.

Range: resident in eastern North America from Newfoundland south to Florida and the Gulf Coast

Food Preferences: loves mice and rats! Also eats squirrels, rabbits, mink, opossum, weasels, bats, doves, small owls, shrews, crows, jays, cardinals and other birds, crayfish, salamanders, frogs, lizards, small snakes, fish such as perch, bluegills, chubs, eels, carp and other slow water fish, box turtles, and insects.

Hunting Technique: mostly a perch and glide predator, which means Barred Owls often sit up on a high perch over where they have been able to find prey before (such as a mouse or mole hole, rabbit trail, etc) and watch for something to run by below them. They then jump off the perch to fly down to catch their prey. Sometimes the owl will fly over an area to flush it's prey, then pounces whatever runs out into the open.

Breeding & Habitat: Courtship and mating usually begins in late February or early March and on rare occasions may be as late as early April. Monogamous, male feeds incubating female. Lives in wooded areas, often near wetlands or other water sources. Not uncommon to be found in suburbs.

Nesting: Cavity nesters, but will use abandoned nests of red shouldered hawks, fox squirrels and crows. Usually, no lining material is added to a nest site. Nests are usually 20 - 50 feet off the ground in pines or other dense conifers, but may also be found in large-limbed oak trees near lakes or ponds.

Eggs: white, lays 2 -3 eggs per clutch. Eggs hatch in about 28 days, chicks fledge in 42 days.

Status: common throughout their range

NOTES: The Barred Owl can be seen either during the day or night but mostly prefers to hunt at night. These birds bathe frequently even in the midst of winter - often they make sure that there is a fresh water source close to their favorite perch. Campers who light a fire at night may find they are suddenly hosting a Barred Owl or two (sometimes more)! The owls will often form a ring around a campfire and begin hooting and calling.

Robbie is from Craigsville WV. He is a human-imprinted bird, which means that he does not recognize that he is a Barred Owl but instead believes he is similar to humans. This leads to some pretty unusual behaviors and makes him unreleaseable back into the wild. Robbie was hatched during April of 1995 and weighs about 2 pounds. He is very gregarious, and enjoys being around human activity. He likes to play with leaves and grass, putting them into his water bowl and watching them float and sink. Sometimes during our educational programs, he will demonstrate part of a Barred Owl call for excited audiences. He will live to be about 20 years old.

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Species Spotlight: Barn Owl

Scientific Name: Tyto alba

Appearance: a medium sized owl with no ear tufts, slender and linear in overall form. Back and upper side of wings are cinnamon colored with flecks of white, black and grey, underside can vary from white to cinnamon, breast is often flecked with dark grey. There are two phases (or morphs) within the species: the white-breasted, almost pure white underneath kind (like Twister in the picture above) and the darker orange-breasted phase, where the breast is a dark cinnamon similar to the back and wings. The darker phase also has more dark on the face as well, almost looking as if someone penciled in some extra strokes along the edges of the facial disk. Plumage variation seems to have nothing to do with age, sex or geographic locale. The long legs and toes are unfeathered.

Common Name: Barn Owl, Ghost Owl, Monkey-faced Owl, Orange Owl, Spirit Owl, Queen of the Night (really!), Stone Owl, Sweetheart Owl, White Owl.

Size: a little over 17 inches tall, wingspan of 42.7 inches, beak averages an inch long. Has an unusually long tarsus (the area on the leg just above the toes) measures on average 2.6 inches. Females are slightly larger then the males overall.

Range: North America, although this family of owls is widespread throughout the world numbering 17 species in all, and all look very similar to the ones we see in the US.

Food Preferences: almost exclusively rodents, although supplemental prey can include sparrows, starlings, frogs, moths, and lizards.

Hunting Technique: soaring about 10 feet off the ground over open habitat, uses hearing ability to locate prey, vision used mostly just for avoiding other objects.

Habitat: Can be found nesting and roosting on high ledges in barns, stone walls, silos, farm outbuildings, abandoned or empty houses, water towers, belfries, mine shafts, large tree cavities, institutional buildings, granaries, quarries, or even under roadway or railroad bridges (and that's the short list!) Barn owl nests have also been found in tunnels they have excavated in a tall steep stream banks. They like to have an open area to hunt in such as an orchard, field or large clearing.

Nesting: 5 - 7 eggs, female does most of the brooding, male brings food. Incubation lasts 30 - 34 days, young are hatched out semi-downy, immobile and eyes are closed. Fully fledged out in 52 - 56 days.

Habits: strongly nocturnal, which often keeps them from being seen by humans. They become active starting at sundown, however if they have chicks in the nest they will also hunt during the day to keep up with food demands of the babies. A nest or roost site is most often identified first by the "whitewash" or urates below the area. Permanent resident year round.

Status: uncertain of populations in WV, declining slowly around the US. Reintroduction programs have been unsuccessful, primarily due to loss of prey base from pesticide use and intensive farming techniques.

NOTES:

Three Rivers Avian Center has two resident barn owls for education programs. Twister is our oldest and most well known. He is a white-breasted morph and was hatched in 1991 as part of a Federal propagation program. He is a human-imprinted bird, raised from an egg to be an educational owl. Zack joined us in the summer of 2003 as a first year bird. He is an orange-breasted morph, and comes to us from Lewisburg. He collided with something that dislocated his elbow, it fused the joint before he was turned in for care and he cannot fly.

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Species Spotlight: Broad-winged Hawk

Scientific Name: Beauteo platypterus

Appearance: head, back and upper surface of wings are a uniform dark brown, underparts are white with medium to heavy rufous barring. Tail is dark with 2 white bands. Crow-sized.

Size: weight ranges from 14 - 17 ounces, males are smaller than the females. Wingspan ranges 32-36 inches, body measures from top of head to the tail averages 14- 18 inches.

Range: Stays east of the Great Plains, breeds across southern Canada down to eastern Texas and Florida. Winters throughout Central & South America. Likes dense deciduous woodlands.

Food Preferences: Frogs, toads, chipmunks, mice, snakes, lizards, small birds, red squirrels, shrews, small rabbits, caterpillars, insects.

Hunting Technique: Hunts from a tree or other perch, very opportunistic.

Breeding: Aerial courtship, the pair flap, sour in circles darting at and passing close to each other. Monogamous.

Nesting: usually in the crotch of a deciduous tree, sometimes in a conifer. Nest is built fresh each year and usually takes 3 - 4 weeks to construct. Sometimes will use an abandoned squirrel nest or other hawk nest. Nest is lined with lichen, inner bark strips, evergreen sprigs and green leaves.

Eggs: 2-3 white or bluish white eggs, marked with brown.

Chicks: Male and female incubate and care for chicks, incubation lasts 28-32 days, chicks are hatched out helpless, unfeathered and unable to focus. Fledging takes place 35 days later.

Status: Common throughout their northern range April through September, stay in Central and South America for the rest of the year.

NOTES: Broadwing hawks are highly migratory and form huge flocks for the Fall migration. These flocks are called "kettles" due to their contained swirling and mixing behavior. Kettles are common during migration because these birds use thermal updrafts to lift them high in the air - thermals can rise up over a mile! The birds ride these thermals up high, look south for the next one, and when they have all gotten together at the top of the thermal they will peel off and soar over to the next, more southerly thermal. This technique of migrating saves the birds a lot of energy and enables them to move south very quickly.

Chip comes to us from Fayette county where she was found with a broken wing when she was just a few months old. The people who found her tried to heal her up themselves, but the wing healed improperly and she cannot fly. She is fully grown, weighing in at sixteen ounces which she maintains by eating some of his favorite foods: mice, insects, frogs and toads. She is very friendly and a bit of a busy-body, spending much of her daylight hours hopping from perch to perch with tirelessly eager energy.

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Species Spotlight: Eastern Screech Owl

Scientific Name: Otus asio

Size: Females weigh between 3 - 8 ounces, males from 3 - 6 ounces. The average weight we see here at TRRC is about 4 - 5 ounces. They are very good at changing their shape from a stubby round-looking appearance when resting to a tall, thin appearance when "on alert". When they are relaxed, Screech Owls stand about 4.5 - 5.5 inches tall, but when they go into alert mode, they can suddenly become about 8 - 9 inches tall and look like a stick. Wingspan is about 10 inches.

Range: Screech Owls inhabit the same area throughout their lifespan. They can be found from Manitoba, Ontario and New England south to Texas and Florida. They often have territories of about a 1/2 mile in size, although they are most often found in the immediate vacinity of their nests or roosts.

Habitat: Open woodlands, deciduous forests, parks, towns, scrub, riparian habitats.

Food preferences: small rodents up to and including chipmunks, insects, crayfish, snakes, lizards, frogs, toads, fish, small birds, and sometimes other screech owls (rarely). There are marked regional differences in individual diets.

Mating: Monogamous.

Nesting: Takes place in February - April, usually in a tree cavity or hollow stump 15 - 20 feet off the ground, often an old flicker nest holes. The nest is lined with remnants of the hole-making process, plus molted feathers and fur debris from food. Will use man-made nest boxes. Males feed incubating females, young hatch synchronously. One brood per year.

Eggs: 4 - 5 white eggs, about 1.4" in length (think of a Ping-Pong ball).

Average Lifespan: 6 years, although in captivity they sometimes live to be about 10 years old.

Hunting Technique: Perch and glide predator. Nocturnal and crepuscular in habits.

Status: common throughout West Virginia. Numbers declined 1981 - 1986, studies showed decline was partly due to the birds trying to build nests in creosoted utility poles and being poisoned by the creosote.

Notes: Although these little creatures look "cute", Screech Owls are aggressive hunters. To observe them in the daytime, however, eyes shut and standing stiffly in "hiding posture" next to a tree trunk, one might not readily perceive them as the hyper-active predators that they are. Starting at dusk, these dedicatedly nocturnal birds move from their secluded sleeping perches and cavities to hunt from an elevated ambush. This includes perches along roadsides where they have a clear view of the rodents, insects and other small animals that cross the road. Many Screech Owls have been hit on roads . Screech Owls are very fond of bathing, and will do so nightly, if given the opportunity. they have been seen bathing as often as three times a night, apparently for the sheer pleasure of it. Clean feathers in good condition are essential for soundless flight, which is a great asset as they hunt. Screech Owls accept nest boxes as suitable for raising their young.

Clara, TRAC's gray morph Screech Owl comes from Beckley, West Virginia. She was found in the roadway after being hit by a car. The impact shattered her upper wing, and we had to amputate what was left of it to save her life. Casey, TRAC's red morph screech Owl comes from Princeton, also a victim of a car collision. He has a fused wrist from the impact and is unable to fly.

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Species Spotlight: Long Eared Owl

Scientific Name: Asio otus

Size: about 15 inches. Wingspan is around 36 - 42 inches and the average weight is between 7 - 8 ounces. The Long Eared Owl is sort of the intermediate between the Great Horned Owl and the Eastern Screech Owl in size. It's "ear tufts" are set closer to the center of the head than other horned owls, and it's eyes are a bright golden-orange. Feet and beak are relatively small in proportion to the rest of the body.

Range: Long Eared owls are distributed throughout the temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, in tropical America, and locally in Africa and Madagascar.

Habitat: prefers conifers, and mixed conniferous/deciduous woodlands, especially near water. Also can be found in parks, woodlands, orchards, and farm woodlands.

Food preferences: small rodents and birds, some amphibians, reptiles, fish, insects.

Mating: Monogamous.

Nesting: Usually in abandoned nests - especially crow, also hawks, squirrels, magpies, herons, and ravens. Sometimes will nest in loose colonies. Female selects the site and does all the brooding, fed by the male. Rarely nests on the ground. Nest sites are more often 25 to 35 feet above the ground. Family stays as a unit well after the young have fledged (sometimes until late Autumn), then young disperse to establish new territories.

Eggs: 4 - 5 white eggs, about 1.6" in length. Young hatch asynchronously.

Average Lifespan: Long lived. In captivity, some records note lifespans of 25 - 27 years. Expect 1/3 of that in the wild.

Hunting Technique: Flying while hunting.

Status: uncommon in West Virginia, mostly observed in higher altitudes. One recorded nest was found in Nicholas County (Bukelew & Hall, WV Breeding Bird Atlas, Pittsburgh Press) and some winter migration counts show individuals in Monongalia, Grant, Morgan, Summers, Upshur, and Webster counties (Venable, Birds of Prey, WVU Extension Service).

Notes: These birds are very nocturnal and firmly believe in daytime concealment when roosting. According to most distribution maps, this species is one of the most common in all the planet, close in distribution to the Barn Owl. It is unusual for owls to establish colonies, but Long Eared Owls like company. Varied calls include a series of drawn out hoots (one roughly every 2 seconds) also short soft "barks" and drawn out wails.

Ginger was found in Oglebay Park in Wheeling, West Virginia tangled in a barbed wire fence. The fence did extensive damage to her right wing, including pulling the skin and tissue away from the bone at the tip. Emergency surgery at Oglebay's Good Zoo was able to save her life, but she was not able to fly and kept re-injuring the surgery site. She was transferred to from Oglebay to TRAC in July 2000, and after repeated attempts at physical therapy failed we finally had to amputate the end of her wing. She is fully grown and weighs 10 ounces. We do not know exactly how old she is. Although she is unable to fly, she is doing fine and charms her audiences with her long eyelashes and dainty ways.

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Species Spotlight: Red-Shouldered Hawk

Scientific Name: Beauteo lineatus

Appearance: medium sized hawk with long legs and toes, more slender than the red-tailed hawk. Back is mottled dark brown with rufous edging on feathers, at rest a rufous patch is evident at the shoulder. Underside of adult is rust colored with some white flecks, tail is black with white bars. Juveniles are similar to immature red tailed hawks, brown mottled over the back, breast is brown-streaked, tail is brown with black bars. Often the two species can be told apart by the tawny wash over the tail colors, sometimes a touch of red showing at the "shoulder" and the crescent shaped tawny area on the upper surface of the primaries next to the outer edge of the feathers.

Size: weight ranges from 1.1 to 1.9 pounds on average, females are larger than the males. Wingspan ranges from 37 - 42 inches, body from top of head to the tail averages 15 - 19 inches.

Range: From Canada down through Mexico. There are 4 recognized morphs that are linked to geographic regions: Eastern, Florida, Texas, and California, the appearance listed in the section above is for the Eastern morph.

Food Preferences: Mice, shrews, moles, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, muskrat, opossum, skunk, small to medium birds, small snakes, toads, frogs, most insects.

Hunting Technique: Soars or hunts from a high perch in open wooded areas, swamps and the edges of forests. Can sometimes be seen hunting open fields.

Breeding: monogamous, mate for life. Highly territorial.

Nesting: platform type nest usually built in the crotch of a tree near the trunk. Nest is made of sticks, twigs, inner bark strips, dry leaves, moss, lichen, and conifer needles, and may be lined with broken apart pellets (fur coughed up after prey is eaten). Nest is built by both male and female.

Eggs: 2 - 4 (usually 3) white or bluish-white, frequently nest stained, marked with brown. 53 mm.

Chicks: Incubation lasts 28 days, chicks are helpless and naked when hatched, fledge 39-45 days later and are incubated, fed and cared for by both the male and female.

Status: populations seem to be stable throughout the US.

NOTES: The red-shouldered hawk will use a territory for many years, and when a mated pair takes up residence, all other red-shoulders except sometimes close family members are encouraged to leave. Frequent displays over territory are seen during mating season on until the chicks are out on their own. Humans are tolerated within a red-shoulder's territory, but large birds, especially crows, vultures and raptors are quickly challenged. This species is also frequently the recipient of mobbing by crows and blue jays, so "turn about is fair play" is definitely at work here! Blue Jays will also take advantage of the nervousness of songbirds by imitating a red-shouldered hawk's territorial call. When the songbirds dive for cover, the blue jay can then enjoy whatever food they may have been eating with no competition!

Kendra, Three Rivers Avian Center's educational Red Shouldered Hawk comes from Pipestem, WV in Summers County where she flew into a utility line and was found later by deer hunters. One of them was a teacher at a local Middle School who had seen our educational program. He brought her to us, but her elbow was so shattered from the impact that there was no repair that could make her fly again. She stays with us now and comes with us to public education programs . She is an adult, but we are unsure how old.

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Species Spotlight: Red-Tailed Hawk

Scientific Name: Beauteo jamaicensis

Appearance: Red tailed hawks have a distinguishing dark "belly band" over a whitish breast. The tail is dark red with a black terminal band. Juveniles and first year red tails have a tail that is whitish underneath like the mature adult, but the top side is brown with black bands - there is no red at all. Juveniles often exhibit brown streaking on their bellies. There are 4 light-morph and 3 dark morph variations recognized within the species.

Size: weight ranges from 1.5 pounds for a male up to 3.5 pounds for a female. Wingspan ranges from 43 to 52 inches, body from top of head to the tail averages 19 inches.

Range: Red tails can be found all over the United States, Canada and Alaska. Northernmost red-tails tend to migrate, the others can stay in their ranges all year. Red-tails prefer both open and wooded areas.

Food Preferences: small rodents, rabbits, squirrels, insects & larvae, fish, snakes. Food preferences of individual red-tailed hawks can be highly variable. For example, our educational bird "Nick" likes the bigger prey such as large rats and squirrels, while her counterpart "Harlan" loves to eat mice and small rats.

Hunting Technique: Most often will sit on a promising high perch and wait for prey to come near, but also pursues prey at high speeds, dives on it from high in the air, or steals prey from other raptors or crows. Has been documented eating fresh carrion, also can hunt on foot - running down their prey or hopping on it from a short distance.

Breeding: Monogamous, mate for life.

Nesting: platform nest of twigs and sticks, often lined and decorated with fresh twigs and strips of bark from nearby trees. The nest can be reused by the same pair for many years.

Eggs: usually 2 -3 white to bluish-white eggs, spotted with brown or sometimes unmarked, laid in late March. There is usually at least a day-long interval between laying each egg. If for some reason the first clutch of eggs is destroyed, red-tails will sometimes lay a second set 3 - 4 weeks later, usually in another nest.

Chicks: Incubation lasts about 34 days per egg, young are immobile when they hatch, with downy feathers and open eyes. The young first leave the nest after they are 42 - 46 days old and will stay with the parents for an additional 30 - 70 days.

Status: dark phase red tails are very rarely seen in West Virginia, although they are plentiful in western states and Canada.

NOTES: Red Tails are well-known for their keen eyesight: have you ever heard the term "hawk eyed"? If you think of a camera lens, you are pretty much looking at the same mechanism that a red-tail uses to focus and to see far distances. Inside the skull, right where the eye comes out of the skull the eye is surrounded with cartilage plates which are held together by ligaments. Whenever the bird wants to see a far distance all it has to do is constrict the ligaments which constrict the cartilage plates. This in turn makes the eyeball itself elongate, allowing the hawk to zoom in on something over a mile away. Just like the zoom lens on a camera. They also have the ability though to see on 3 different planes with each eye: like having trifocals on and looking through whichever part of the lens they want. AND add to that that their brain is wired to the eyes in such a way that they can see something out of one eye, and another something out of the other eye and keep the two images separate in their minds. Quite a feat!

Nick, our red-tailed hawk is a gunshot victim from Nicholas County, WV. In order to save her life we had to amputate her left wing. She is well-loved at our educational programs and is a great surrogate mother to hawk chicks turned in during baby season. Her care has enabled countless chicks to fly free as adults.

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Species Spotlight:

Dark Phased Red-Tailed Hawk

Scientific Name: Beauteo jamaicensis

Appearance: This red tailed hawk is a very dark chocolate brown all over, with the feathers on his back having an almost gun-metal blue overwash. There is no distinguishing "belly band" or whitish breast. The tail is very dark red with a dark, almost black terminal band. At 2 years old, Harlan has bright yellow eyes, which may or may not change later to the more common brown color seen in other lighter- morphed red-tails.

Size: weight ranges from 1.5 pounds for a male up to 3.5 pounds for a female. Wingspan ranges from 43 to 52 inches, body from top of head to the tail averages 19 inches.

Range: Red tails can be found all over the United States and Alaska. Northernmost red-tails tend to migrate, the others can stay in their ranges all year.

Food Preferences: small rodents, rabbits, squirrels, insects & larvae, fish, snakes. Food preferences of individual red-tailed hawks can be highly variable. For example, "Nick" likes the bigger prey such as large rats and squirrels, "Harlan" loves to eat mice and small rats.

Hunting Technique: Most often will sit on a promising high perch and wait for prey to come near, but also pursues prey at high speeds, dives on it from high in the air, or steals prey from other raptors or crows. Has been documented eating fresh carrion, also can hunt on foot - running down their prey or hopping on it from a short distance.

Breeding & Habitat: Red-tails prefer both open and wooded areas. Monogamous, mate for life.

Nesting: platform nest of twigs and sticks, often lined and decorated with fresh twigs and strips of bark from nearby trees. The nest can be reused by the same pair for many years.

Eggs: usually 2 -3 white to bluish-white eggs, spotted with brown or sometimes unmarked, laid in late March. There is usually at least a day-long interval between laying each egg. If for some reason the first clutch of eggs is destroyed, red-tails will sometimes lay a second set 3 - 4 weeks later, usually in another nest.

Chicks: Incubation lasts about 34 days per egg, young are immobile when they hatch, with downy feathers and open eyes. The young first leave the nest after they are 42 - 46 days old and will stay with the parents for an additional 30 - 70 days.

Status: dark phase red tails are very rarely seen in West Virginia, although they are plentiful in western states and Canada.

NOTES: "Harlan" is named after the very dark phase of red tail called a Harlan's Hawk. When we first met him in November of last year, he had the red-tail's juvenile tail (brown with black bars) and we wondered whether he was a dark phase or a true Harlan's hawk. When he molted in his new tail this Spring, it was a deep red, indicating that he is a dark phase. Harlan's hawks are found primarily in Canada and Alaska during the summer, migrating down into and through the Great Plains for the winter. They are a subspecies of red-tail. Harlan was injured by flying into a power line near the Hanging Rocks Migration Observatory in Monroe county. The injury caused permanent nerve damage to his right elbow and we had to amputate most of his wing. He is now 2 years old and could live to be more than 29!

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